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Descriere: Leonardo da Vinci ca artist şi om de ştiinţă
Materie: Fizică, Istorie
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REFERAT DESPRE LEONARDO DA VINCI CA OM DE ŞTIINŢĂ

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) s-a născut la Florenţa. Pictor, sculptor, arhitect, poet, filozof, om de ştiinţă, matematician, inginer, fizician, inventator, da Vinci este unul dintre acei titani ai Renaşterii care continuă să uimească prin actualitatea problemelor pe care le-a abordat sau prin originalitatea soluţiilor .

Leonardo da Vinci nu a fost doar un mare artist, ci şi un savant complex. A fost membru activ al Comisiei monumentelor publice, alături de Bramante. El a fost consultat asupra catedralelor din Pavia şi Milano.
Într-unul din manuscrise(1488-1492) dă desene şi planuri de biserici ce par făcute pentru a ilustra un tratat despre cupole şi pentru a răspunde la întrebarea: „Ce legi trebuie să conducă la construcţia unui dom central în jurul căruia se grupează domuri mai mici?“(M. De Geymuller). Concluzia sa este aceeaşi cu a lui Bramante la construcţia catedralei Sf. Petru din Roma: pentru a produce un efect maxim, domul trebuie construit pe un monument al cărui plan poate fi închis într-un cerc.
Ca inginer, a făcut un sistem de canale pentru a regulariza cursul fluviilor lombarde. Cunoştea apa, cu puterea ei, binele şi răul pe care îl produce, o studia în mediul său natural, cu curenţii ei, cu legile mişcării ei, pentru a o aduce la ascultare.
Savant înainte de toate, el este condus de practică la teorie, de acţiune la ştiinţă. El găsea în toate un subiect de cercetare şi carneţelele pe care le purta cu el se umpleau de idei venite spontan.
A inventat, la cererea unor prinţi, maşini de război al căror principiu de funcţionare este modern şi astăzi.
A proiectat sisteme de atac şi de apărare militară, fortăreţe şi sisteme blindate: „Ştiu, scria el Ducelui de Milano, să golesc apa din şanţurile de apărare sau să construiesc tot felul de poduri, de berbeci, de scări de asalt sau care acoperite, sigure cu trăgători înăuntru ce pot risipi cele mai numeroase trupe înarmate; apoi ştiu să construiesc bombardiere, mortiere şi tunuri uşoare”.
A inventat o maşină de zburat pe care azi delta-planul o egalează cu greu, a inventat camera obscură şi „urechea lui Dionis”, un tub acustic ce îi permitea să asculte tot ce se vorbea într-un palat.
A descoperit, înaintea oamenilor de ştiinţă ai vremii sale, perspectiva prin culoare, deformările optice ale obiectelor la distanţă, absorbţiile în lumină şi umbră.
Leonardo da Vinci a studiat anatomia, concepţia embrionului uman, organele genitale masculine, circulaţia sângelui etc.
Titanismul care îl defineşte este nu numai o formă de manifestare a geniului prin forţă creatoare ci şi prin puterea de anticipare. Azi el continuă să fie contemporan cu noi şi rămâne contemporan cu viitorul prin forţa minţii sale scormonitoare de adevăr.

Primii ani de viaţă în Florenţa
Leonardo s-a născut pe 15 aprilie 1452, în micul oraş Vinci, de lângă Florenţa, în Toscana. Era fiul unui bogat notar florentin şi a unei ţărănci.În 1460, familia s-a stability în Florenţa, unde Leonardo da Vinci (din Vinci) a primit cea mai bună educaţie pe care Florenţa, un centru intellectual şi artistic major din Italia, o putea oferi. A avansat rapid social şi intellectual. Era chipeş, convingator, un bun musician şi spontan.

Anii din Milano

În 1482 Leonardo a intrat în serviciul lui Ludovico Sforza, Duce de Milano, căruia îi trimisese o scrisoare uimitoare în care spunea că poate construi poduri portabile; putea să construiască tunuri şi să organizeze bombardamente; putea construi nave şi maşini blindate, catapulte şi alte maşini de război. A servit ca inginer principal în numeroasele acţiuni militare ale ducelui şi ca arhitect în timpuri de pace. În plus, l-a asistat pe matematicianul italian Luca Pacioli la lucrarea Divina Proportione (1509), un tratat de estetică bazat pe numărul de aur: .

Proiecte ştiinţifice şi teoretice

Ca om de ştiinţă, Leonardo da Vinci s-a ridicat deasupra tuturor contemporanilor săi. Teoriile sale ştiinţifice, ca şi descoperirile sale artistice, se bazează pe observaţii şi documentaţii precise. A înţeles mai bine decât oricine din acel secol sau din următorul, importanţa documentării ştiinţifice. Din nefericire, aşa cum foarte rar a dus la bun sfârşit proiecte artistice, nu a terminat nici tratatele de ştiinţă pe care şi le propusese. Teoriile sale sunt cuprinse în numeroase caiete, din care majoritatea sunt scrise în oglindă. Deoarece erau greu de citit, descoperirile lui da Vinci nu s-au răspândit în tipul vieţii sale, deşi dacă ar fi fost publicate ar fi revoluţionat ştiinţa secolului al XVI-lea. Leonardo da Vinci a anticipat multe descoperiri din timpurile moderne. În anatomie a studiat circulaţia sângelui şi modul de funcţionare a ochiului. A făcut descoperiri în meteorologie şi hidrologie, a înţeles efectul lunii asupra mareelor, a bănuit originea continentelor aşa cum este explicată ea astăzi şi originea scoicilor fosilizate.
A fost printre creatorii hidraulicii, şi probabil a inventat hidrometrul; planul său de canalizare a râurilor încă mai are valoare practică. A inventat numeroase maşini ingenioase, multe putând fi folosite. Printre acestea se numără şi un aparat de zburat asemănător cu elicopterul şi o paraşută a cărei utilitate a fost verificată de curând de Adrian Nicholas deasupra Africii de Sud. Ea era formată dintr-o pânză întinsă pe un schelet de lemn şi cântărea ceva mai puţin de 100 de kg. Deşi nu toate maşinile lui da Vinci funcţionează, ele au pus bazele aerodinamicii.
În 1506 Leonardo s-a întors în Milano, sub conducerea guvernatorului francez,, Charles d’Amboise. În Milano şi-a continuat proiectele inginereşti. Între 1514 şi 1516 Leonardo a trăit în Roma în Palazzo Belvedere din Vatican, unde s-a ocupat mai ales cu experimentarea ştiinţifică. A murit la Château de Cloux, lângă Amboise, pe 2 mai 1519.

Manuscrisele lui da Vinci numără nu mai puţin de 49 de subiecte diferite de cercetare, diversitatea fiind o altă trăsătură specifică a geniului.
Ceea ce l-a uimit pe omul modern de ştiinţă este corectitudinea calculelor, perfecţiunea inginerească a mecanismelor precum şi logica matematică sau fizică ce a stat la baza lor, deşi la vremea aceea, principiile înseşi nu erau cunoscute.
Înaintea lui Kepler sau Tycho Brahe, Leonardo da Vinci a cercetat eclipsele, echinocţiile, sunetele sferelor cereşti, petele de pe Lună. Înaintea lui Copernic, el a afirmat că lumina Lunii este primită de la Soare şi că Soarele nu se mişcă.
A murit fără să ştie că ceea ce a descoperit el avea să fie redescoperit de urmaşii săi.

BIBLIOGRAFIE

„Leonardo da Vinci,” Microsoft® Encarta® 97 Encyclopedia. © 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
“Leap of faith”,© National Geographic, dec. 2000
“Leonardo da Vinci şi William Shakespeare”, Urania , mai 2000, pg. 40-41

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), artist florentin, unul din cei mai mari maeştri ai Renaşterii târzii,cunoscut ca pictor, sculptor, arhitect, inginer, om de ştiinţă. His profound love of knowledge and research was the keynote of both his artistic and scientific endeavours. His innovations in the field of painting influenced the course of Italian art for more than a century after his death, and his scientific studies—particularly in the fields of anatomy, optics, and hydraulics—anticipated many of the developments of modern science.
Early Life in Florence
Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, in the small town of Vinci, near Florence, in Tuscany. He was the son of a wealthy Florentine notary and a peasant woman. In the mid-1460s the family settled in Florence, where Leonardo was given the best education that Florence, a major intellectual and artistic centre of Italy, could offer. He rapidly advanced socially and intellectually. He was handsome, persuasive in conversation, and a fine musician and improviser. In about 1466 he was apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day. In Verrocchio’s workshop Leonardo was introduced to many activities, from the painting of altarpieces and panel pictures to the creation of large sculptural projects in marble and bronze. In 1472 he was admitted to the painters’ guild of Florence, and in 1476 he was still considered Verrocchio’s assistant. In Verrocchio’s Baptism of Christ (c. 1470, Uffizi, Florence), the kneeling angel in the left of the painting is by Leonardo.
In 1478 Leonardo became an independent master. His first commission, to paint an altarpiece for the chapel of the Palazzo Vecchio, the Florentine town hall, was never executed. His first large painting, The Adoration of the Magi (Uffizi), begun in 1481 and left unfinished, was ordered for the monastery of San Donato a Scopeto, Florence. Other works ascribed to his youth are the so-called Benois Madonna (c. 1478, Hermitage, St Petersburg), the portrait Ginevra de’ Benci (c. 1474, National Gallery, Washington, D.C.), and the unfinished St Jerome (c. 1481, Pinacoteca, Vatican).
Years in Milan

In about 1482 Leonardo entered the service of Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, having written the duke an astonishing letter in which he stated that he could build portable bridges; that he knew the techniques of constructing bombardments and of making cannons; that he could build ships as well as armoured vehicles, catapults, and other war machines; and that he could execute sculpture in marble, bronze, and clay. He served as principal engineer in the duke’s numerous military enterprises and was also active as an architect. In addition, he assisted the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in the celebrated work Divina Proportione (1509), a treatise on aesthetics centring on the concept of the Golden Section.
Evidence indicates that Leonardo had apprentices and pupils in Milan, for whom he probably wrote the various texts later compiled as Treatise on Painting (1651; trans. 1956). The most important of his own paintings during the early Milan period was The Virgin of the Rocks, two versions of which exist (1483-1485, Louvre, Paris; 1490s to 1506-1508, National Gallery, London); he worked on the compositions for a long time, as was his custom, seemingly unwilling to finish what he had begun. From 1495 to 1497 Leonardo laboured on his masterpiece, The Last Supper, a mural in the refectory of the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. Unfortunately, his experimental use of oil on dry plaster (on what was the thin outer wall of a space designed for serving food) led to technical problems, and by 1500 the mural had begun to deteriorate. Since 1726 attempts have been made, unsuccessfully, to restore it; a concerted conservation and restoration programme, making use of the latest technology, was begun in 1977 and has reversed some of the damage. Although much of the original surface is gone, the majesty of the composition and the penetrating characterization of the figures give a fleeting vision of its vanished splendour.
During his long stay in Milan, Leonardo also produced other paintings and drawings (most of which are now lost), theatre designs, architectural drawings, and models for the dome of Milan Cathedral. His largest commission was for a colossal bronze equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza, father of Ludovico, for the courtyard of Castello Sforzesco. In December 1499, however, the Sforza family was driven from Milan by French forces. Leonardo had made the clay model but contingency dictated that the metal intended for the statue be used for cannon instead. The model was destroyed by French archers, who used it as a target. Leonardo returned to Florence in 1500.
Return to Florence

In 1502 Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna and son and chief general of Pope Alexander VI. In his capacity as the duke’s chief architect and engineer, Leonardo supervised work on the fortresses of the papal territories in central Italy. In 1503 he was a member of a commission of artists who were to decide on the proper location for Michelangelo’s statue of David (1501-1504, Accademia, Florence), and he also served as an engineer in the war against Pisa. Towards the end of the year Leonardo began to design a decoration for the great hall of the Palazzo Vecchio. The subject was the Battle of Anghiari, a Florentine victory in the war with Pisa. He made many drawings for it and completed a full-size cartoon, in 1505, but he never finished the wall painting. The cartoon itself was destroyed in the 17th century, and the composition survives only in copies, of which the most famous (c. 1615, Louvre) is the one by Peter Paul Rubens.
During this second Florentine period, Leonardo painted several portraits, but the only one that survives is the famous Mona Lisa (1503-1506, Louvre), one of the most celebrated portraits ever painted. It is also known as La Gioconda, after the presumed name of the woman’s husband. Leonardo seems to have had a special affection for the picture, for he took it with him on all his subsequent travels.
Later Travels and Death
In 1506 Leonardo went again to Milan, at the summons of its French governor, Charles d’Amboise. The following year he was named court painter to Louis XII of France, who was then residing in Milan. For the next six years Leonardo divided his time between Milan and Florence, where he often visited his half-brothers and half-sisters and looked after his inheritance. In Milan he continued his engineering projects and worked on an equestrian figure for a monument to Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, commander of the French forces in the city; although the project was not completed, drawings and studies have been preserved. From 1514 to 1516 Leonardo lived in Rome under the patronage of Pope Leo X: he was housed in the Palazzo Belvedere in the Vatican and seems to have been occupied principally with scientific experimentation. In 1516 he travelled to France to enter the service of Francis I. He spent his last years at the Château de Cloux, near Amboise, where he died on May 2, 1519.
Paintings
Although Leonardo produced a relatively small number of paintings, many of which remained unfinished, he was nevertheless an extraordinarily innovative and influential artist. During his early years, his style closely paralleled that of Verrocchio, but he gradually moved away from his teacher’s stiff, tight, and somewhat rigid treatment of figures to develop a more evocative and atmospheric handling of composition. The early Adoration of the Magi introduced a new approach to composition, in which the main figures are grouped in the foreground, while the background consists of distant views of imaginary ruins and battle scenes.
Leonardo’s stylistic innovations are even more apparent in The Last Supper, in which he re-created a traditional theme in an entirely new way. Instead of showing the 12 apostles as individual figures, he grouped them in dynamic compositional units of three, framing the figure of Christ, who is isolated in the centre of the picture. Seated before a pale, distant landscape seen through a rectangular opening in the wall, Christ—who is about to announce that one of those present will betray him—represents a calm nucleus while the others respond with animated gestures. In the monumentality of the scene and the weightiness of the figures, Leonardo reintroduced a style pioneered more than a generation earlier by Masaccio.
The Mona Lisa, Leonardo’s most famous work, is as well known for its mastery of technical innovations as for the mysteriousness of its legendary smiling subject. This work is a consummate example of two techniques—sfumato and chiaroscuro—of which Leonardo was one of the first great masters. Sfumato (smoked) is a delicately atmospheric haze or smoky effect produced by subtle, almost infinitesimal transitions between areas of colour; it is especially evident in the delicate gauzy robes worn by the sitter and in her enigmatic smile. Chiaroscuro (light and dark) is the technique of modelling and defining forms by means of contrasts between light and shadow; the sensitive hands of the sitter are portrayed with a luminous modulation of light and shade, while colour contrast is used only sparingly.
Leonardo was among the first to introduce atmospheric perspective (the effect that the atmosphere appears to have on the colour and definition of distant scenery); landscape backgrounds painted in this way are an especially notable characteristic of his paintings. The chief masters of the High Renaissance in Florence, including Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, and Fra Bartolommeo, all learnt from Leonardo; he completely transformed the school of Milan; and at Parma, the artistic development of Correggio was given direction by Leonardo’s work.
Leonardo’s many extant drawings, which reveal his brilliant draughtsmanship and his mastery of the anatomy of humans, animals, and plant life, may be found in the principal European collections; the largest group is at Windsor Castle, in England. Probably his most famous drawing is the magnificent self-portrait in old age (c. 1510-1513, Biblioteca Reale, Turin).
Sculptural and Architectural Drawings
Because none of Leonardo’s sculptural projects was brought to completion, his approach to three-dimensional art can only be judged from his drawings. The same strictures apply to his architecture; none of his building projects was actually carried out as he devised them. In his architectural drawings, however, he demonstrates mastery in the use of massive forms, a clarity of expression, and especially a deep understanding of ancient Roman sources.
Scientific and Theoretical Projects

As a scientist Leonardo towered above all his contemporaries. His scientific theories, like his artistic innovations, were based on careful observation and precise documentation. He understood, better than anyone of his century or the next, the importance of precise scientific observation. Unfortunately, just as he frequently failed to bring to conclusion artistic projects, he never completed his planned treatises on a variety of scientific subjects. His theories are contained in numerous notebooks, most of which were written in mirror script. Because they were not easily decipherable, Leonardo’s findings were not disseminated in his own lifetime; had they been published, they would have revolutionized the science of the 16th century. Leonardo actually anticipated many discoveries of modern times. In anatomy he studied the circulation of the blood and the action of the eye. He made discoveries in meteorology and geology, understood the effect of the moon on the tides, foreshadowed modern conceptions of continent formation, and surmised the origin of fossilized shells. He was among the originators of the science of hydraulics and probably devised the hydrometer; his scheme for the canalization of rivers still has practical value. He invented a large number of ingenious machines, many potentially useful, among them an underwater diving suit. His flying devices, although not practicable, embodied sound principles of aerodynamics.